Following the edicts and principles of psychology requires a highly developed moral sense. Currently, the majority of guidelines operate on the presumption that animal research should proceed based on broad, perceived benefits to humans. Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior". The concept of costs to individual animals can be further examined through the growing body of research on animal emotion and cognition. Behavior suggestive of play has been observed in other taxa, including reptiles, fishes and cephalopods [43]. e24059. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024059, Editor: Catriona J. MacCallum, Public Library of Science, United Kingdom. here. Animal welfare: 1. In addition, serious questions have been raised about the effectiveness of animal testing and research in predicting anticipated outcomes [5]–[13]. No, PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024059, http://www.bmj.com/content/early/2005/12/31/bmj.39048.407928.BE.full.pdfhtml, http://clinicaltrials.ploshubs.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pctr.0010036, http://www.bmj.com/content/328/7438/514.extract, http://ohsr.od.nih.gov/guidelines/nuremberg.html, http://history.nih.gov/research/downloads/helsinki.pdf, http://ohsr.od.nih.gov/guidelines/belmont.html, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1872363/, http://grants.nih.gov/grants/olaw/references/phspol.htm#PublicHealthServicePolicyonHumaneCareandUseofLaboratory, http://grants.nih.gov/grants/olaw/references/phspol.htm, http://cabig.cancer.gov/action/collaborations/howstudy/. The American Psychological Association's (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (hereinafter referred to as the Ethics Code) consists of an Introduction, a Preamble, five General Principles (A-E) and specific Ethical Standards.The Introduction discusses the intent, organization, procedural considerations, and scope of application of the Ethics Code. The subjects were never informed that they were participating in a psychological study. Efforts to objectively evaluate the value of animal research for understanding and treating human disease are particularly relevant in the modern era, considering the availability of increasingly sophisticated technologies to address research questions [9]. Ethics. For example, fear operates in a less organized subcortical neural circuit than pain, and it has been described in a wide variety of species [31]. Full reporting of all animal use is not required or made public in most countries. The ethical obligation to protect and promote animal welfare in research. 2. No, Is the Subject Area "Toxicology" applicable to this article? These findings suggest that crows and related species display evidence of causal reasoning, flexible learning strategies, imagination and prospection, similar to findings in great apes. No, Is the Subject Area "Emotions" applicable to this article? While none of these tools on their own are capable of replicating a whole organism, they do provide a mechanistic understanding of molecular events. The use of animals in research is inherently more difficult to approach systematically because research questions are much more diverse and less proscribed than in regulatory toxicology [52]. Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups; 4; Journal article reporting standards for qualitative primary, qualitative meta-analytic, and mixed methods research in psychology: The APA Publications … This system includes a blood-donor base of hundreds of individuals from diverse populations and offers many benefits, including predictive high-throughput in vitro immunology to assess novel drug and vaccine candidates, measurement of immune responses in diverse human populations, faster cycle time for discovery, better selection of drug candidates for clinical evaluation, and reductions in the time and costs to bring drugs and vaccines to the market. Many researchers have also begun to rely solely on human data and cell and tissue assays to address large areas of therapeutic research and development. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, AIDS and HIV Infection Update: New Research, Ethical Responsibilities, Evolving Legal Frameworks, and Published Resources [Innovations in Clinical Practice] Sexual Behavior Between Clinical Supervisors and Trainees: Implications for Professional Standards [Professional Psychology] Ethics In Research 1. Although discussion of these issues can be difficult, progress is most likely to occur through an ethically consistent, evidence-based approach. Apprehension around burgeoning medical research in the late 1800s and the first half of the 20th century sparked concerns over the use of humans and animals in research [14], [15]. While it is important to acknowledge limitations to non-animal methods remain, recent developments demonstrate that these limitations should be viewed as rousing challenges rather than insurmountable obstacles. If researchers could better understand the factors that increase the risk for breast cancer, as well as methods for effective prevention, fewer women would require treatment for breast cancer. t/f? Self-awareness, assessed through mirror self-recognition, has been reported for chimpanzees and other great apes, magpies, and some cetaceans. This approach has facilitated the recruitment of women for studies including a national project funded by the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute of Environmental Health to examine how environment and genes affect breast cancer risk. Journals should encourage authors to adhere to animal research reporting standards, for example the ARRIVE reporting guidelines, which describe the details journals should require from authors regarding: Animals demonstrate coordinated responses to pain and many emotional states that are similar to those exhibited by humans [25], [26]. Analysis and Discussion Ethical Considerations and Advances in the Understanding of Animal Cognition. No, Is the Subject Area "Publication ethics" applicable to this article? These reviews have raised questions about whether human diseases inflicted upon animals sufficiently mimic the disease processes and treatment responses seen in humans. Animal rights: the view that (non-human) animals have moral or legal rights. Wrote the paper: HRF NB. Potential causes of harm include invasive procedures, disease, and deprivation of basic physiological needs. In contrast, certain dogs and cats have received special attention and protections. The NRC vision calls for a shift away from animal use in chemical testing toward computational models and high-throughput and high-content in vitro methods. Some believe that deception is a necessary tool for psychological research because deception __________. Articles in the accompanying Collection only briefly touch on the many scientific and ethical issues surrounding the use of animals in testing and research. Suspicions around the use of humans were deepened with the revelation of several exploitive research projects, including a series of medical experiments on large numbers of prisoners by the Nazi German regime during World War II and the Tuskegee syphilis study. Yes Learn about morality in the animal kingdom. There are a number of unethical elements in the experimental design. Copyright: © 2011 Ferdowsian, Beck. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click Despite serious shortcomings for many of these assays, most of which are 50 to 60 years old, the field has been slow to adopt newer methods. Yes Animal Welfare Act excludes purpose-bred birds, rats, or mice, which comprise more than 90% of animals used in research [20]. This differs significantly from animal research guidelines, where the importance of the scientific question being researched commonly takes precedence over the interests of individual animals. Numerous studies have demonstrated that, even in response to gentle handling, animals can show marked changes in physiological and hormonal markers of stress [30]. Proponents of animal rights tend to regard animal experimentation as unethical because animals cannot consent to research. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Recent systematic reviews of treatments for various clinical conditions demonstrated that animal studies have been poorly predictive of human outcomes in the fields of neurology and vascular disease, among others [7], [48]. Resource limitations might require a strategic approach that emphasizes diseases with the greatest public health threats, which increasingly fall within the scope of preventable diseases. t/f? One example of how psychological research can be used to control harmful behavior would be __________. The psychologist is considered an expert in his field. (a) Psychologists’ moral, ethical and legal standards of behavior are a personal matter to the same degree as they are for other citizens, except as these may compromise the fulfillment of their professional responsibilities or reduce the trust in psychology or psychologists held by the general public. Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, Washington, D.C., United States of America, Citation: Ferdowsian HR, Beck N (2011) Ethical and Scientific Considerations Regarding Animal Testing and Research. Approximately ninety years later, the U.S. adopted regulations for animals used in research, with the passage of the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act of 1966 [20]. The field of ethics (or moral philosophy) involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. Depending on the study, it is sometimes necessary for psychologists to be deceptive. Read the scenario below and answer the question that follows. Get tips for negotiating ethical dilemmas in everyday life. No, Is the Subject Area "Breast cancer" applicable to this article? The test subjects are treated as objects rather than a living creature and are frequently abused, neglected and kept in improper cages. broad scope, and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time. Since a Western set of values guides the definition of "normal," psychological research can be considered __________. Human research protections emphasize specific principles aimed at protecting the interests of individuals and populations, sometimes to the detriment of the scientific question. The majority of animal use in psychology is in research, and this is covered by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986. A psychologist, whose primary focus is sleep behaviors, gives an acquaintance advice regarding psychiatric medication. These guidelines are generally permissive of animal research independent of the costs to the individual animal as long as benefits seem achievable. These principles encouraged researchers to work to reduce the number of animals used in experiments to the minimum considered necessary, refine or limit the pain and distress to which animals are exposed, and replace the use of animals with non-animal alternatives when possible. PSYCH 105 Psychology as a Science and Profession (3)(BA) This course meets the Bachelor of Arts degree requirements. Strengthen your addiction knowledge base on your budget. Speakers who contributed to the conference reviewed and contributed new knowledge regarding the cognitive and affective capabilities of animals, revealed through ethology, cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and related disciplines. Animal Welfare Act excludes birds, rats and mice, the U.S. guidelines overseeing research conducted with federal funding includes protections for all vertebrates [22], [23]. More recent studies have shown that crows are capable of creating and using tools that require access to episodic-like memory formation and retrieval [47]. Government Principles for the Utilization and Care of Vertebrate Animals Used in Testing, Research and Training” which stress compliance with the U.S. It does not take into account the dignity of the subjects. Subsequent national and international laws and guidelines have provided basic protections, but there are some significant inconsistencies among current regulations [21]. Is the Subject Area "Research ethics" applicable to this article? Further, while the “3 Rs” capture crucially important concepts, they do not adequately reflect the substantial developments in our new knowledge about the cognitive and emotional capabilities of animals, the individual interests of animals, or an updated understanding of potential harms associated with animal research. In the Psychology ATAR course students will be introduced to psychological knowledge which supports an understanding of the way individuals function in groups. [38]–[44]. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff and students. Nevertheless, based on available information, it is clear that the number of animals used in research has not significantly declined over the past several decades. Animal Welfare Act and “other applicable Federal laws, guidelines, and policies” [24]. However, some in the scientific community are beginning to question how well data from animals translates into germane knowledge and treatment of human conditions. In the area of vaccine testing and development, a surrogate in-vitro human immune system has been developed to help predict an individual's immune response to a particular drug or vaccine [53], [54]. Yes Studies published in the last few decades have dramatically increased our understanding of animal sentience, suggesting that animals' potential for experiencing harm is greater than has been appreciated and that current protections need to be reconsidered. One example of how psychological research can significantly harm human and animal research [ 55.. 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